While 39 delegates signed the U.S. Constitution, including George Washington and James Madison, the document’s ratification was determined by 1,647 delegates from the thirteen states. This larger body voted 65% in favor and 35% against adoption. These state delegates—ranging from fewer than 60 in some states to over 300 in Massachusetts—are often overlooked despite their crucial role in establishing our nation’s foundation. What’s particularly remarkable is how prophetic the objections of the dissenting 35% have proven to be regarding constitutional limitations and federal power.
Noah Webster, though himself a supporter of the Constitution, documented nine principal objections raised by its opponents. First among these was the concern that “the new government will be too expensive.” This prediction has been dramatically fulfilled as the United States now faces a national debt exceeding $37 trillion, dwarfing our annual GDP of $30.34 trillion. The federal government’s spending habits have indeed led to financial precariousness.
Webster’s third documented objection warned that “the federal government will annihilate the several legislatures.” This concern has largely materialized as Congress leverages federal funding to control state policies. The federal government’s tax authority has enabled it to effectively override state autonomy, creating what one observer with nearly 20 years in public office described as “a tremendous bribe system” where states surrender their rights in exchange for funding.
The objection that “liberty of the press is not guaranteed” was later addressed through the First Amendment. Similarly, concerns about jury trials being “abolished in all civil cases” were addressed in the Bill of Rights.
Webster’s fifth noted objection was that “the taxing power of Congress is too great.” This prediction was dramatically fulfilled with the ratification of the 16th Amendment, which established federal income taxation. This amendment transformed the federal government into a “super state” with unprecedented surveillance capabilities into citizens’ financial affairs, employment, and personal lives—a development the Constitution’s framers would have vehemently opposed.
The eighth objection anticipated that “the federal courts will absorb the judiciaries of the several states.” This prediction materialized through the 14th Amendment, which enabled the Supreme Court to override state court decisions on constitutional grounds. For example, though the Constitution is silent on marriage (implying it as a state matter under the 10th Amendment), the Supreme Court leveraged the 14th Amendment to federalize this issue and invalidate state laws regarding same-sex marriage.
William Finley of Pennsylvania, who served in the House of Representatives from 1803 to 1817, articulated 23 objections to the Constitution. His third objection warned that “the sovereignty of the states is destroyed.” Today’s state governments indeed function largely as administrative agencies distributing federal funds, with significantly diminished authority compared to pre-14th Amendment times.
Finley’s tenth objection concerned “the dangers of a standing army,” reflecting fears that a permanent military force would enable federal overreach. Before the Constitution, citizen militias were temporarily formed during conflicts and disbanded afterward, as demonstrated by George Washington. The concern about a standing army ranked among the top objections to the Constitution.
Finley also objected to the abolition of annual elections, noting that less frequent elections (every two years for the House, six years for the Senate) would weaken citizens’ control over government. This reduction in electoral accountability represented a significant departure from the responsive governance many founders envisioned.
Mercy Otis Warren, a prominent female critic of the Constitution, predicted it would “destroy the state governments.” This concern has proven remarkably prescient as the federal government has grown into what many describe as an “empire” with 800 military bases in 128 countries, housing between 150,000 and 200,000 military personnel worldwide.
The most significant objection to the Constitution, however, was the absence of a Bill of Rights. This concern was so widespread that states included messages requesting such protections when ratifying the document. It was only through Thomas Jefferson’s influence that James Madison proposed the Bill of Rights on June 8, 1789.
The 16th Amendment, in particular, has enabled unprecedented federal expansion by replacing the historical reliance on tariffs, customs duties, and excise taxes with direct income taxation. This shift has fueled what some characterize as a “drunken spree” of federal spending, currently amounting to approximately $52 billion daily. This spending addiction continues to expand as new revenue streams like tariffs are added without corresponding reductions in taxation or spending.
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